The string module contains a number of useful constants and classes, as well as some deprecated legacy functions that are also available as methods on strings. In addition, Python’s built-in string classes support the sequence type methods described in the Sequence Types — str, unicode, list, tuple, buffer, xrange section, and also the string-specific methods described in the String Methods section. To output formatted strings use template strings or the % operator described in the String Formatting Operations section. Also, see the re module for string functions based on regular expressions.
The constants defined in this module are:
New in version 2.6.
The built-in str and unicode classes provide the ability to do complex variable substitutions and value formatting via the str.format() method described in PEP 3101. The Formatter class in the string module allows you to create and customize your own string formatting behaviors using the same implementation as the built-in format() method.
The Formatter class has the following public methods:
In addition, the Formatter defines a number of methods that are intended to be replaced by subclasses:
Loop over the format_string and return an iterable of tuples (literal_text, field_name, format_spec, conversion). This is used by vformat() to break the string in to either literal text, or replacement fields.
The values in the tuple conceptually represent a span of literal text followed by a single replacement field. If there is no literal text (which can happen if two replacement fields occur consecutively), then literal_text will be a zero-length string. If there is no replacement field, then the values of field_name, format_spec and conversion will be None.
Retrieve a given field value. The key argument will be either an integer or a string. If it is an integer, it represents the index of the positional argument in args; if it is a string, then it represents a named argument in kwargs.
The args parameter is set to the list of positional arguments to vformat(), and the kwargs parameter is set to the dictionary of keyword arguments.
For compound field names, these functions are only called for the first component of the field name; Subsequent components are handled through normal attribute and indexing operations.
So for example, the field expression ‘0.name’ would cause get_value() to be called with a key argument of 0. The name attribute will be looked up after get_value() returns by calling the built-in getattr() function.
If the index or keyword refers to an item that does not exist, then an IndexError or KeyError should be raised.
The str.format() method and the Formatter class share the same syntax for format strings (although in the case of Formatter, subclasses can define their own format string syntax).
Format strings contain “replacement fields” surrounded by curly braces {}. Anything that is not contained in braces is considered literal text, which is copied unchanged to the output. If you need to include a brace character in the literal text, it can be escaped by doubling: {{ and }}.
The grammar for a replacement field is as follows:
replacement_field ::= "{" field_name ["!" conversion] [":" format_spec] "}"
field_name ::= (identifier | integer) ("." attribute_name | "[" element_index "]")*
attribute_name ::= identifier
element_index ::= integer | index_string
index_string ::= <any source character except "]"> +
conversion ::= "r" | "s"
format_spec ::= <described in the next section>
In less formal terms, the replacement field starts with a field_name, which can either be a number (for a positional argument), or an identifier (for keyword arguments). Following this is an optional conversion field, which is preceded by an exclamation point '!', and a format_spec, which is preceded by a colon ':'.
See also the Format Specification Mini-Language section.
The field_name itself begins with either a number or a keyword. If it’s a number, it refers to a positional argument, and if it’s a keyword it refers to a named keyword argument. This can be followed by any number of index or attribute expressions. An expression of the form '.name' selects the named attribute using getattr(), while an expression of the form '[index]' does an index lookup using __getitem__().
Some simple format string examples:
"First, thou shalt count to {0}" # References first positional argument
"My quest is {name}" # References keyword argument 'name'
"Weight in tons {0.weight}" # 'weight' attribute of first positional arg
"Units destroyed: {players[0]}" # First element of keyword argument 'players'.
The conversion field causes a type coercion before formatting. Normally, the job of formatting a value is done by the __format__() method of the value itself. However, in some cases it is desirable to force a type to be formatted as a string, overriding its own definition of formatting. By converting the value to a string before calling __format__(), the normal formatting logic is bypassed.
Two conversion flags are currently supported: '!s' which calls str() on the value, and '!r' which calls repr().
Some examples:
"Harold's a clever {0!s}" # Calls str() on the argument first
"Bring out the holy {name!r}" # Calls repr() on the argument first
The format_spec field contains a specification of how the value should be presented, including such details as field width, alignment, padding, decimal precision and so on. Each value type can define its own “formatting mini-language” or interpretation of the format_spec.
Most built-in types support a common formatting mini-language, which is described in the next section.
A format_spec field can also include nested replacement fields within it. These nested replacement fields can contain only a field name; conversion flags and format specifications are not allowed. The replacement fields within the format_spec are substituted before the format_spec string is interpreted. This allows the formatting of a value to be dynamically specified.
See the Format examples section for some examples.
“Format specifications” are used within replacement fields contained within a format string to define how individual values are presented (see Format String Syntax). They can also be passed directly to the built-in format() function. Each formattable type may define how the format specification is to be interpreted.
Most built-in types implement the following options for format specifications, although some of the formatting options are only supported by the numeric types.
A general convention is that an empty format string ("") produces the same result as if you had called str() on the value. A non-empty format string typically modifies the result.
The general form of a standard format specifier is:
format_spec ::= [[fill]align][sign][#][0][width][.precision][type] fill ::= <a character other than '}'> align ::= "<" | ">" | "=" | "^" sign ::= "+" | "-" | " " width ::= integer precision ::= integer type ::= "b" | "c" | "d" | "e" | "E" | "f" | "F" | "g" | "G" | "n" | "o" | "s" | "x" | "X" | "%"
The fill character can be any character other than ‘}’ (which signifies the end of the field). The presence of a fill character is signaled by the next character, which must be one of the alignment options. If the second character of format_spec is not a valid alignment option, then it is assumed that both the fill character and the alignment option are absent.
The meaning of the various alignment options is as follows:
Option Meaning '<' Forces the field to be left-aligned within the available space (this is the default). '>' Forces the field to be right-aligned within the available space. '=' Forces the padding to be placed after the sign (if any) but before the digits. This is used for printing fields in the form ‘+000000120’. This alignment option is only valid for numeric types. '^' Forces the field to be centered within the available space.
Note that unless a minimum field width is defined, the field width will always be the same size as the data to fill it, so that the alignment option has no meaning in this case.
The sign option is only valid for number types, and can be one of the following:
Option Meaning '+' indicates that a sign should be used for both positive as well as negative numbers. '-' indicates that a sign should be used only for negative numbers (this is the default behavior). space indicates that a leading space should be used on positive numbers, and a minus sign on negative numbers.
The '#' option is only valid for integers, and only for binary, octal, or hexadecimal output. If present, it specifies that the output will be prefixed by '0b', '0o', or '0x', respectively.
width is a decimal integer defining the minimum field width. If not specified, then the field width will be determined by the content.
If the width field is preceded by a zero ('0') character, this enables zero-padding. This is equivalent to an alignment type of '=' and a fill character of '0'.
The precision is a decimal number indicating how many digits should be displayed after the decimal point for a floating point value formatted with 'f' and 'F', or before and after the decimal point for a floating point value formatted with 'g' or 'G'. For non-number types the field indicates the maximum field size - in other words, how many characters will be used from the field content. The precision is not allowed for integer values.
Finally, the type determines how the data should be presented.
The available string presentation types are:
Type Meaning 's' String format. This is the default type for strings and may be omitted. None The same as 's'.
The available integer presentation types are:
Type Meaning 'b' Binary format. Outputs the number in base 2. 'c' Character. Converts the integer to the corresponding unicode character before printing. 'd' Decimal Integer. Outputs the number in base 10. 'o' Octal format. Outputs the number in base 8. 'x' Hex format. Outputs the number in base 16, using lower- case letters for the digits above 9. 'X' Hex format. Outputs the number in base 16, using upper- case letters for the digits above 9. 'n' Number. This is the same as 'd', except that it uses the current locale setting to insert the appropriate number separator characters. None The same as 'd'.
In addition to the above presentation types, integers can be formatted with the floating point presentation types listed below (except 'n' and None). When doing so, float() is used to convert the integer to a floating point number before formatting.
The available presentation types for floating point and decimal values are:
Type Meaning 'e' Exponent notation. Prints the number in scientific notation using the letter ‘e’ to indicate the exponent. 'E' Exponent notation. Same as 'e' except it uses an upper case ‘E’ as the separator character. 'f' Fixed point. Displays the number as a fixed-point number. 'F' Fixed point. Same as 'f'. 'g' General format. For a given precision p >= 1, this rounds the number to p significant digits and then formats the result in either fixed-point format or in scientific notation, depending on its magnitude.
The precise rules are as follows: suppose that the result formatted with presentation type 'e' and precision p-1 would have exponent exp. Then if -4 <= exp < p, the number is formatted with presentation type 'f' and precision p-1-exp. Otherwise, the number is formatted with presentation type 'e' and precision p-1. In both cases insignificant trailing zeros are removed from the significand, and the decimal point is also removed if there are no remaining digits following it.
Postive and negative infinity, positive and negative zero, and nans, are formatted as inf, -inf, 0, -0 and nan respectively, regardless of the precision.
A precision of 0 is treated as equivalent to a precision of 1.
'G' General format. Same as 'g' except switches to 'E' if the number gets too large. The representations of infinity and NaN are uppercased, too. 'n' Number. This is the same as 'g', except that it uses the current locale setting to insert the appropriate number separator characters. '%' Percentage. Multiplies the number by 100 and displays in fixed ('f') format, followed by a percent sign. None The same as 'g'.
This section contains examples of the new format syntax and comparison with the old %-formatting.
In most of the cases the syntax is similar to the old %-formatting, with the addition of the {} and with : used instead of %. For example, '%03.2f' can be translated to '{0:03.2f}'.
The new format syntax also supports new and different options, shown in the follow examples.
Accessing arguments by position:
>>> '{0}, {1}, {2}'.format('a', 'b', 'c')
'a, b, c'
>>> '{2}, {1}, {0}'.format('a', 'b', 'c')
'c, b, a'
>>> '{2}, {1}, {0}'.format(*'abc') # unpacking argument sequence
'c, b, a'
>>> '{0}{1}{0}'.format('abra', 'cad') # arguments' indices can be repeated
'abracadabra'
Accessing arguments by name:
>>> 'Coordinates: {latitude}, {longitude}'.format(latitude='37.24N', longitude='-115.81W')
'Coordinates: 37.24N, -115.81W'
>>> coord = {'latitude': '37.24N', 'longitude': '-115.81W'}
>>> 'Coordinates: {latitude}, {longitude}'.format(**coord)
'Coordinates: 37.24N, -115.81W'
Accessing arguments’ attributes:
>>> c = 3-5j
>>> ('The complex number {0} is formed from the real part {0.real} '
... 'and the imaginary part {0.imag}.').format(c)
'The complex number (3-5j) is formed from the real part 3.0 and the imaginary part -5.0.'
>>> class Point(object):
... def __init__(self, x, y):
... self.x, self.y = x, y
... def __str__(self):
... return 'Point({self.x}, {self.y})'.format(self=self)
...
>>> str(Point(4, 2))
'Point(4, 2)'
Accessing arguments’ items:
>>> coord = (3, 5)
>>> 'X: {0[0]}; Y: {0[1]}'.format(coord)
'X: 3; Y: 5'
Replacing %s and %r:
>>> "repr() shows quotes: {0!r}; str() doesn't: {1!s}".format('test1', 'test2')
"repr() shows quotes: 'test1'; str() doesn't: test2"
Aligning the text and specifying a width:
>>> '{0:<30}'.format('left aligned')
'left aligned '
>>> '{0:>30}'.format('right aligned')
' right aligned'
>>> '{0:^30}'.format('centered')
' centered '
>>> '{0:*^30}'.format('centered') # use '*' as a fill char
'***********centered***********'
Replacing %+f, %-f, and % f and specifying a sign:
>>> '{0:+f}; {0:+f}'.format(3.14, -3.14) # show it always
'+3.140000; -3.140000'
>>> '{0: f}; {0: f}'.format(3.14, -3.14) # show a space for positive numbers
' 3.140000; -3.140000'
>>> '{0:-f}; {0:-f}'.format(3.14, -3.14) # show only the minus -- same as '{0:f}; {0:f}'
'3.140000; -3.140000'
Replacing %x and %o and converting the value to different bases:
>>> # format also supports binary numbers
>>> "int: {0:d}; hex: {0:x}; oct: {0:o}; bin: {0:b}".format(42)
'int: 42; hex: 2a; oct: 52; bin: 101010'
>>> # with 0x, 0o, or 0b as prefix:
>>> "int: {0:d}; hex: {0:#x}; oct: {0:#o}; bin: {0:#b}".format(42)
'int: 42; hex: 0x2a; oct: 0o52; bin: 0b101010'
Expressing a percentage:
>>> points = 19.5
>>> total = 22
>>> 'Correct answers: {0:.2%}.'.format(points/total)
'Correct answers: 88.64%'
Using type-specific formatting:
>>> import datetime
>>> d = datetime.datetime(2010, 7, 4, 12, 15, 58)
>>> '{0:%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S}'.format(d)
'2010-07-04 12:15:58'
Nesting arguments and more complex examples:
>>> for align, text in zip('<^>', ['left', 'center', 'right']):
... '{0:{align}{fill}16}'.format(text, fill=align, align=align)
...
'left<<<<<<<<<<<<'
'^^^^^center^^^^^'
'>>>>>>>>>>>right'
>>>
>>> octets = [192, 168, 0, 1]
>>> '{0:02X}{1:02X}{2:02X}{3:02X}'.format(*octets)
'C0A80001'
>>> int(_, 16)
3232235521
>>>
>>> width = 5
>>> for num in range(5,12):
... for base in 'dXob':
... print '{0:{width}{base}}'.format(num, base=base, width=width),
... print
...
5 5 5 101
6 6 6 110
7 7 7 111
8 8 10 1000
9 9 11 1001
10 A 12 1010
11 B 13 1011
New in version 2.4.
Templates provide simpler string substitutions as described in PEP 292. Instead of the normal %-based substitutions, Templates support $-based substitutions, using the following rules:
Any other appearance of $ in the string will result in a ValueError being raised.
The string module provides a Template class that implements these rules. The methods of Template are:
The constructor takes a single argument which is the template string.
Like substitute(), except that if placeholders are missing from mapping and kws, instead of raising a KeyError exception, the original placeholder will appear in the resulting string intact. Also, unlike with substitute(), any other appearances of the $ will simply return $ instead of raising ValueError.
While other exceptions may still occur, this method is called “safe” because substitutions always tries to return a usable string instead of raising an exception. In another sense, safe_substitute() may be anything other than safe, since it will silently ignore malformed templates containing dangling delimiters, unmatched braces, or placeholders that are not valid Python identifiers.
Template instances also provide one public data attribute:
Here is an example of how to use a Template:
>>> from string import Template
>>> s = Template('$who likes $what')
>>> s.substitute(who='tim', what='kung pao')
'tim likes kung pao'
>>> d = dict(who='tim')
>>> Template('Give $who $100').substitute(d)
Traceback (most recent call last):
[...]
ValueError: Invalid placeholder in string: line 1, col 10
>>> Template('$who likes $what').substitute(d)
Traceback (most recent call last):
[...]
KeyError: 'what'
>>> Template('$who likes $what').safe_substitute(d)
'tim likes $what'
Advanced usage: you can derive subclasses of Template to customize the placeholder syntax, delimiter character, or the entire regular expression used to parse template strings. To do this, you can override these class attributes:
Alternatively, you can provide the entire regular expression pattern by overriding the class attribute pattern. If you do this, the value must be a regular expression object with four named capturing groups. The capturing groups correspond to the rules given above, along with the invalid placeholder rule:
The following functions are available to operate on string and Unicode objects. They are not available as string methods.
Return a translation table suitable for passing to translate(), that will map each character in from into the character at the same position in to; from and to must have the same length.
Note
Don’t use strings derived from lowercase and uppercase as arguments; in some locales, these don’t have the same length. For case conversions, always use str.lower() and str.upper().
The following list of functions are also defined as methods of string and Unicode objects; see section String Methods for more information on those. You should consider these functions as deprecated, although they will not be removed until Python 3.0. The functions defined in this module are:
Deprecated since version 2.0: Use the float() built-in function.
Convert a string to a floating point number. The string must have the standard syntax for a floating point literal in Python, optionally preceded by a sign (+ or -). Note that this behaves identical to the built-in function float() when passed a string.
Note
When passing in a string, values for NaN and Infinity may be returned, depending on the underlying C library. The specific set of strings accepted which cause these values to be returned depends entirely on the C library and is known to vary.
Deprecated since version 2.0: Use the int() built-in function.
Convert string s to an integer in the given base. The string must consist of one or more digits, optionally preceded by a sign (+ or -). The base defaults to 10. If it is 0, a default base is chosen depending on the leading characters of the string (after stripping the sign): 0x or 0X means 16, 0 means 8, anything else means 10. If base is 16, a leading 0x or 0X is always accepted, though not required. This behaves identically to the built-in function int() when passed a string. (Also note: for a more flexible interpretation of numeric literals, use the built-in function eval().)
Deprecated since version 2.0: Use the long() built-in function.
Convert string s to a long integer in the given base. The string must consist of one or more digits, optionally preceded by a sign (+ or -). The base argument has the same meaning as for atoi(). A trailing l or L is not allowed, except if the base is 0. Note that when invoked without base or with base set to 10, this behaves identical to the built-in function long() when passed a string.
Return a list of the words of the string s. If the optional second argument sep is absent or None, the words are separated by arbitrary strings of whitespace characters (space, tab, newline, return, formfeed). If the second argument sep is present and not None, it specifies a string to be used as the word separator. The returned list will then have one more item than the number of non-overlapping occurrences of the separator in the string. The optional third argument maxsplit defaults to 0. If it is nonzero, at most maxsplit number of splits occur, and the remainder of the string is returned as the final element of the list (thus, the list will have at most maxsplit+1 elements).
The behavior of split on an empty string depends on the value of sep. If sep is not specified, or specified as None, the result will be an empty list. If sep is specified as any string, the result will be a list containing one element which is an empty string.
Return a list of the words of the string s, scanning s from the end. To all intents and purposes, the resulting list of words is the same as returned by split(), except when the optional third argument maxsplit is explicitly specified and nonzero. When maxsplit is nonzero, at most maxsplit number of splits – the rightmost ones – occur, and the remainder of the string is returned as the first element of the list (thus, the list will have at most maxsplit+1 elements).
New in version 2.4.
Return a copy of the string with leading characters removed. If chars is omitted or None, whitespace characters are removed. If given and not None, chars must be a string; the characters in the string will be stripped from the beginning of the string this method is called on.
Changed in version 2.2.3: The chars parameter was added. The chars parameter cannot be passed in earlier 2.2 versions.
Return a copy of the string with trailing characters removed. If chars is omitted or None, whitespace characters are removed. If given and not None, chars must be a string; the characters in the string will be stripped from the end of the string this method is called on.
Changed in version 2.2.3: The chars parameter was added. The chars parameter cannot be passed in earlier 2.2 versions.
Return a copy of the string with leading and trailing characters removed. If chars is omitted or None, whitespace characters are removed. If given and not None, chars must be a string; the characters in the string will be stripped from the both ends of the string this method is called on.
Changed in version 2.2.3: The chars parameter was added. The chars parameter cannot be passed in earlier 2.2 versions.